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The simplest form of a structure is the basic sentence. A sentence must consist of at least a subject and verb. Many sentences feature a subject, verb, and object. A part of speech for each word in a sentence can be further classified according to its purpose and meaning it adds. The usage of nouns names people, animals, places, things, qualities, and states. There are six types of different nouns: common, proper, compound, abstract, collective, and plural nouns. Nouns that have both singular and plural forms can be countable or noncountable depending on the sense they are used and can have an affect on other parts of the sentence. Adjectives describe nouns such as people and things, like your hometown and are often clustered into groups (big/small, clean/dirty, modern/ancient, expensive/cheap, etc). Order of adjectives are used to give greater emphasis to the adjective being used. The basic rule is size?age?color?material?noun and many more rules of this kind for other types of adjective, can be complicated. Comparatives (adjectives) compare two people or things. (adjective) +…er than such as Pete is taller than Gary. Adjectives of more than two syllables do not add er, but are preceded by the word more, such as Elisa is more beautiful than Cecilia. To form the Superlatives, adjectives with three syllables or more are preceded by the word most as in: Copenhagen is one of the most modern city I’ve travelled to. Also, contain (adjective) + …est as in: Gary is the youngest in our class. An irregular comparative and superlative would be: good?better?best; bad worse worst. There are two types of articles, definite (the) and indefinite (a, an). Indefinite articles are used with singular nouns when the noun is general. Example: a ball; an elephant. There are also some specific rules for ‘a/an’ when singular noun begins with a consonant sound (a uniform); some + plural noun (some balls); when noun is modified by an adjective it depends on sound of the adjective follows article not the noun (an unusual parrot). When referring to any member of a group or a specific group use ‘the’ as in: This is a football. The football is blue. When singular/plural nouns that are specific or unique (Please close the door; the white house). Exceptions for ‘the’ in geographical uses (generally do not use before countries, cities, towns, states, lakes, bays, mountains, continents, names of islands) but in these instances: the United States, the Great Lakes, the Rockies, the Canary Islands, the Pacific, the North Pole, the Middle East, the Persian Gulf. Nouns that are talking about general ideas are called Zero Article as in “Coffee is a popular drink” or when the countable noun is plural: “I don’t like pigs.”. All verbs are either transitive or intransitive. Transitive verbs are followed directly by an object as in, “David plays football.” Examples of these are: eat, cook, read, study, finish, understand, cut, repeat, squash, contradict, unearth, make, etc. Sometimes they cannot be followed by an object when it simply does an action alone, “She cooks”. Intransitive verbs are related to time/place/ frequency such as: go, fall, arrive, depart, come, sleep, speak, promise, limp, cry, skate, etc. An example of an intransitive verb: “He went to school” because the subject is not doing anything to anyone. Infinitive verbs have a base form and action is formed by preceding the base with ‘to’. Examples: to go, to cry, to eat, etc. Some intransitive verbs are followed by an infinite to denote consequence of action, such as: He hopes to come back or He promised to behave well. Auxiliary verbs form a tense or expression by combining the present or past participles /infinitives of other verbs. It does not carry the main meaning; just forms a structure. Three auxiliary verbs: do, have, and be. Example: John is having a shower right now. I have been to England three times. Do you work out? Four tenses of auxiliary verbs - Base: be, do, have Present: am, is, are/ do, does/ have,has Past Simple: was, were/ did/ had Past Participle: been/ done/ had Adverbs add meaning to the action, quality, state denoted by a verb. Five types of adverbs: Manner – well, hard, slow, quickly place – above, up, here, there Time – now, then soon, recently Degree – very, much, really quite Frequency – once, twice, sometimes, always Others types: Comment/Attitude – actually, perhaps, surely, wisely linking – firstly Viewpoint – mentally, morally, officially Add/Limiting – also, either, else, only, too Adverbs are normally placed after the object of a transitive verb: He ate his lunch quickly. Adverbs are usually placed immediately after an intransitive verb: He fell awkwardly in the playground. Adverbs of frequency are placed between the subject and verb or between the auxiliary verb and verb: She always sleeps after lunch. I sometimes eat meat, but I always drink wine with my meal. Place -manner-time are to be kept in mind for multiple adverbs: He will drive there slowly tomorrow. She is coming here afterwards. Gerunds is the -ing form of a verb used as a noun. Example Sentences: Playing tennis is fun. (subject of the sentence) We are playing tennis. (object of the verb enjoy) He’s excited about playing tennis. (object of the preposition about) Some verbs such as admit, consider,delay, remember, like etc are usually followed by the gerund form when another verb is used: He admitted stealing the money. Prepositions are sometimes followed by the gerund if an action is indicated: Sue always has coffee before attending a staff meeting. Pronouns are used in place of noun phrases: Personal Pronouns: I, me, you, he, him, she, her, we, it, us, they, them I hate everyone. Everyone hates me. They have a car. It belongs to me. Possessive Pronouns: Mine, yours, his, hers, our, theirs, its That car is mine. Reflexive Pronouns: Myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves Relative Pronouns: who, which, that, whose The man that I marry will be rich. Prepositions show the relationship between a noun or a pronoun and some other word in a sentence. Three main types: Time/date at, on, by, before, in, from, since, for, during, to, until, after, about Movement from, to, in, into, on onto, by, off, out, through, over Place/position in, at, on, by, above, over, under, below, beneath, beside, between, near, next to, behind, in front of Conjunction join words or groups into sentences. They join words of the same class as in pairs of nouns/ adjectives/ adverbs/ verbs/ phrases: and, but, or, not, yet also: both…and, either…or, neither…nor, not only…but also He plays football and soccer. I’m young and beautiful. She doesn’t eat meat or seafood. Join clauses of sentences: as, as soon as, before, since, until, when, because, although, unless, so, in order that He started work as soon as he arrived. I married him because he’s rich.